This is Info file latex, produced by Makeinfo version 1.67 from the
input file latex2e.texi.

   This file documents LaTeX2e, a document preparation system. LaTeX2e
is a macro package for TeX.

   This is edition 1.6 of the LaTeX2e documentation, and is for the
Texinfo that is distributed as part of Version 19 of GNU Emacs. It uses
version 2.134 or later of the texinfo.tex input file.

   This is translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS Help Library.  The
pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam
Houston State University.

   The LaTeX 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore
<stg@dcs.ed.ac.uk>.

   The LaTeX2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen
<bullestock@dk-online.dk>.

   Copyright 1988,1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.  Copyright
1994-1996 Torsten Martinsen.

   Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that
the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
permission notice identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that the sections entitled "Distribution" and "General
Public License" may be included in a translation approved by the author
instead of in the original English.


File: latex,  Node: Using BibTeX,  Prev: \nocite,  Up: thebibliography

Using BibTeX
............

   If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended
if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain
your bibliography, you don't use the `thebibliography' environment.
Instead, you include the lines

             \bibliographystyle{style}
             \bibliography{bibfile}

   where `style' refers to a file `style.bst', which defines how your
citations will look. The standard styles distributed with BibTeX are:

`alpha'
     Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and
     year of publication.

`plain'
     Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.

`unsrt'
     Like `plain', but entries are in order of citation.

`abbrv'
     Like `plain', but more compact labels.

   In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the
demands of various publications.

   The argument to `\bibliography' refers to the file `bibfile.bib',
which should contain your database in BibTeX format. Only the entries
referred to via `\cite' and `\nocite' will be listed in the
bibliography.


File: latex,  Node: theorem,  Next: titlepage,  Prev: thebibliography,  Up: Environments

theorem
-------

      \begin{theorem}
       theorem text
      \end{theorem}

   The `theorem' environment produces "Theorem x" in boldface followed
by your theorem text.


File: latex,  Node: titlepage,  Next: verbatim,  Prev: theorem,  Up: Environments

titlepage
---------

      \begin{titlepage}
       text
      \end{titlepage}

   The `titlepage' environment creates a title page, i.e.  a page with
no printed page number or heading.  It also causes the following page
to be numbered page one.  Formatting the title page is left to you.  The
`\today' command comes in handy for title pages.

   Note that you can use the `\maketitle' (*note \maketitle::.) command
to produce a standard title page.


File: latex,  Node: verbatim,  Next: verse,  Prev: titlepage,  Up: Environments

verbatim
--------

      \begin{verbatim}
       text
      \end{verbatim}

   The `verbatim' environment is a paragraph-making environment that
gets LaTeX to print exactly what you type in.  It turns LaTeX into a
typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that
they would on a typewriter.

* Menu:

* \verb::       The macro form of the `verbatim' environment.


File: latex,  Node: \verb,  Up: verbatim

\verb
.....

   `\verb char literal_text char'

   `\verb*char literal_text char'

   Typesets `literal_text' exactly as typed, including special
characters and spaces, using a typewriter (`\tt') type style.  There
may be no space between `\verb' or `\verb*' and `char' (space is shown
here only for clarity).  The `*-form' differs only in that spaces are
printed as a special character.


File: latex,  Node: verse,  Prev: verbatim,  Up: Environments

verse
-----

      \begin{verse}
       text
      \end{verse}

   The `verse' environment is designed for poetry, though you may find
other uses for it.

   The margins are indented on the left and the right. Separate the
lines of each stanza with `\\', and use one or more blank lines to
separate the stanzas.


File: latex,  Node: Footnotes,  Next: Layout,  Prev: Environments,  Up: Commands

Footnotes
=========

   Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways.  They can be produced
with one command, the `\footnote' command.  They can also be produced
with two commands, the `\footnotemark' and the `\footnotetext'
commands.  See the specific command for information on why you would
use one over the other.

* Menu:

* \footnote::           Insert a footnote.
* \footnotemark::       Insert footnote mark only.
* \footnotetext::       Insert footnote text only.


File: latex,  Node: \footnote,  Next: \footnotemark,  Prev: Footnotes,  Up: Footnotes

\footnote
---------

   `\footnote[number]{text}'

   The `\footnote' command places the numbered footnote `text' at the
bottom of the current page.  The optional argument, `number', is used
to change the default footnote number.  This command can only be used
in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you cannot use it in sectioning commands
like `\chapter', in figures, tables or in a `tabular' environment.


File: latex,  Node: \footnotemark,  Next: \footnotetext,  Prev: \footnote,  Up: Footnotes

\footnotemark
-------------

   The `\footnotemark' command puts the footnote `number' in the text.
This command can be used in inner paragraph mode.  The text of the
footnote is supplied by the `\footnotetext' command.

   This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote
markers referring to the same footnote by using

   `\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]'

   after the first `\footnote' command.


File: latex,  Node: \footnotetext,  Prev: \footnotemark,  Up: Footnotes

\footnotetext
-------------

   `\footnotetext[number]{text}'

   The `\footnotetext' command produces the `text' to be placed at the
bottom of the page.  This command can come anywhere after the
`\footnotemark' command.  The `\footnotetext' command must appear in
outer paragraph mode.

   The optional argument, `number', is used to change the default
footnote number.


File: latex,  Node: Lengths,  Next: Letters,  Prev: Layout,  Up: Commands

Lengths
=======

   A `length' is a measure of distance.  Many LaTeX commands take a
length as an argument.

* Menu:

* \newlength::          Define a new length.
* \setlength::          Set the value of a length.
* \addtolength::        Add a quantity to a length.
* \settodepth::         Set a length to the depth of something.
* \settoheight::        Set a length to the height of something.
* \settowidth::         Set a length to the width of something.
* Predefined lengths::  Lengths that are, like, predefined.


File: latex,  Node: \newlength,  Next: \setlength,  Prev: Lengths,  Up: Lengths

\newlength
----------

   `\newlength{\gnat}'

   The `\newlength' command defines the mandatory argument, `\gnat', as
a `length' command with a value of `0in'.  An error occurs if a `\gnat'
command already exists.


File: latex,  Node: \setlength,  Next: \addtolength,  Prev: \newlength,  Up: Lengths

\setlength
----------

   `\setlength{\gnat}{length}'

   The `\setlength' command is used to set the value of a `length'
command.  The `length' argument can be expressed in any terms of length
LaTeX understands, i.e., inches (`in'), millimetres (`mm'), points
(`pt'), etc.


File: latex,  Node: \addtolength,  Next: \settodepth,  Prev: \setlength,  Up: Lengths

\addtolength
------------

   `\addtolength{\gnat}{length}'

   The `\addtolength' command increments a "length command" by the
amount specified in the `length' argument.  It can be a negative amount.


File: latex,  Node: \settodepth,  Next: \settoheight,  Prev: \addtolength,  Up: Lengths

\settodepth
-----------

   `\settodepth{\gnat}{text}'

   The `\settodepth' command sets the value of a `length' command equal
to the depth of the `text' argument.


File: latex,  Node: \settoheight,  Next: \settowidth,  Prev: \settodepth,  Up: Lengths

\settoheight
------------

   `\settoheight{\gnat}{text}'

   The `\settoheight' command sets the value of a `length' command
equal to the height of the `text' argument.


File: latex,  Node: \settowidth,  Next: Predefined lengths,  Prev: \settoheight,  Up: Lengths

\settowidth
-----------

   `\settowidth{\gnat}{text}'

   The `\settowidth' command sets the value of a `length' command equal
to the width of the `text' argument.


File: latex,  Node: Predefined lengths,  Prev: \settowidth,  Up: Lengths

Predefined lengths
------------------

   `\width'

   `\height'

   `\depth'

   `\totalheight'

   These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the
box-making commands *Note Spaces & Boxes::. They specify the natural
width etc. of the text in the box. `\totalheight' equals `\height' +
`\depth'. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural
size, e.g., say

   `\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}'


File: latex,  Node: Letters,  Next: Line & Page Breaking,  Prev: Lengths,  Up: Commands

Letters
=======

   You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business.
The `letter' document class is designed to make a number of letters at
once, although you can make just one if you so desire.

   Your `.tex' source file has the same minimum commands as the other
document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a
minimum:

      \documentclass{letter}
      \begin{document}
       ... letters ...
      \end{document}

   Each letter is a `letter' environment, whose argument is the name
and address of the recipient.  For example, you might have:

      \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
           \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
        ...
      \end{letter}

   The letter itself begins with the `\opening' command.  The text of
the letter follows.  It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input.  Commands that
make no sense in a letter, like `\chapter', do not work.  The letter
closes with a `\closing' command.

   After the `closing', you can have additional material.  The `\cc'
command produces the usual "cc: ...".  There's also a similar `\encl'
command for a list of enclosures. With both these commands, use `\\' to
separate the items.

   These commands are used with the `letter' class:

* Menu:

* \address::            Your return address.
* \cc::                 Cc list.
* \closing::            Saying goodbye.
* \encl::               List of enclosed material.
* \location::           Your organisation's address.
* \makelabels::         Making address labels.
* \name::               Your name, for the return address.
* \opening::            Saying hello.
* \ps::                 Adding a postscript.
* \signature::          Your signature.
* \startbreaks::        Allow page breaks.
* \stopbreaks::         Disallow page breaks.
* \telephone::          Your phone number.


File: latex,  Node: \address,  Next: \cc,  Prev: Letters,  Up: Letters

\address
--------

   `\address{Return address}'

   The return address, as it should appear on the letter and the
envelope.  Separate lines of the address should be separated by `\\'
commands.  If you do not make an `\address' declaration, then the
letter will be formatted for copying onto your organisation's standard
letterhead.  (*Note Overview::, for details on your local
implementation).  If you give an `\address' declaration, then the
letter will be formatted as a personal letter.


File: latex,  Node: \cc,  Next: \closing,  Prev: \address,  Up: Letters

\cc
---

   `\cc{Kate Schechter\\Rob McKenna}'

   Generate a list of other persons the letter was sent to. Each name is
printed on a separate line.


File: latex,  Node: \closing,  Next: \encl,  Prev: \cc,  Up: Letters

\closing
--------

   `\closing{text}'

   The letter closes with a `\closing' command, i.e.,
      \closing{Best Regards,}


File: latex,  Node: \encl,  Next: \location,  Prev: \closing,  Up: Letters

\encl
-----

   `\encl{CV\\Certificates}'

   Generate a list of enclosed material.


File: latex,  Node: \location,  Next: \makelabels,  Prev: \encl,  Up: Letters

\location
---------

   `\location{address}'

   This modifies your organisation's standard address.  This only
appears if the `firstpage' pagestyle is selected.


File: latex,  Node: \makelabels,  Next: \name,  Prev: \location,  Up: Letters

\makelabels
-----------

   `\makelabels{number}'

   If you issue this command in the preamble, LaTeX will create a sheet
of address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters.


File: latex,  Node: \name,  Next: \opening,  Prev: \makelabels,  Up: Letters

\name
-----

   `\name{June Davenport}'

   Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return
address.


File: latex,  Node: \opening,  Next: \ps,  Prev: \name,  Up: Letters

\opening
--------

   `\opening{text}'

   The letter begins with the `\opening' command.  The mandatory
argument, `text', is whatever text you wish to start your letter, i.e.,
      \opening{Dear Joe,}


File: latex,  Node: \ps,  Next: \signature,  Prev: \opening,  Up: Letters

\ps
---

   `\ps'

   Use this command before a postscript.


File: latex,  Node: \signature,  Next: \startbreaks,  Prev: \ps,  Up: Letters

\signature
----------

   `\signature{Harvey Swick}'

   Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath
the space for your signature.  Items that should go on separate lines
should be separated by `\\' commands.


File: latex,  Node: \startbreaks,  Next: \stopbreaks,  Prev: \signature,  Up: Letters

\startbreaks
------------

   `\startbreaks'

   Used after a `\stopbreaks' command to allow page breaks again.


File: latex,  Node: \stopbreaks,  Next: \telephone,  Prev: \startbreaks,  Up: Letters

\stopbreaks
-----------

   `\stopbreaks'

   Inhibit page breaks until a `\startbreaks' command occurs.


File: latex,  Node: \telephone,  Prev: \stopbreaks,  Up: Letters

\telephone
----------

   `\telephone{number}'

   This is your telephone number.  This only appears if the `firstpage'
pagestyle is selected.


File: latex,  Node: Line & Page Breaking,  Next: Making Paragraphs,  Prev: Letters,  Up: Commands

Line & Page Breaking
====================

   The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to
translate your input file into a string of glyphs and spaces.  To
produce a printed document, this string must be broken into lines, and
these lines must be broken into pages.  In some environments, you do the
line breaking yourself with the `\\' command, but LaTeX usually does it
for you.

* Menu:

* \\::                  Start a new line.
* \- (hyphenation)::    Insert explicit hyphenation.
* \cleardoublepage::    Start a new right-hand page.
* \clearpage::          Start a new page.
* \enlargethispage::    Enlarge the current page a bit.
* \fussy::              Be fussy about line breaking.
* \hyphenation::        Tell LaTeX how to hyphenate a word.
* \linebreak::          Break the line.
* \newline::            Break the line prematurely.
* \newpage::            Start a new page.
* \nolinebreak::        Don't break the current line.
* \nopagebreak::        Don't make a page break here.
* \pagebreak::          Please make a page break here.
* \sloppy::             Be sloppy about line breaking.


File: latex,  Node: \\,  Next: \- (hyphenation),  Prev: Line & Page Breaking,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\\
--

   `\\[*][extra-space]'

   The `\\' command tells LaTeX to start a new line.  It has an
optional argument, `extra-space', that specifies how much extra
vertical space is to be inserted before the next line.  This can be a
negative amount.

   The `\\*' command is the same as the ordinary `\\' command except
that it tells LaTeX not to start a new page after the line.


File: latex,  Node: \- (hyphenation),  Next: \cleardoublepage,  Prev: \\,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\-
--

   The `\-' command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that
point.  LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find all
correct hyphenation points.  The `\-' command is used for the
exceptional cases.

   Note that when you insert `\-' commands in a word, the word will
only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation
points that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.


File: latex,  Node: \cleardoublepage,  Next: \clearpage,  Prev: \- (hyphenation),  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\cleardoublepage
----------------

   The `\cleardoublepage' command ends the current page and causes all
figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.
In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand
(odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary.


File: latex,  Node: \clearpage,  Next: \enlargethispage,  Prev: \cleardoublepage,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\clearpage
----------

   The `\clearpage' command ends the current page and causes all
figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.


File: latex,  Node: \enlargethispage,  Next: \fussy,  Prev: \clearpage,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\enlargethispage
----------------

   `\enlargethispage{size}'

   `\enlargethispage*{size}'

   Enlarge the `\textheight' for the current page by the specified
amount; e.g. `\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}' will allow one
additional line.

   The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page
as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit
`\pagebreak'.


File: latex,  Node: \fussy,  Next: \hyphenation,  Prev: \enlargethispage,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\fussy
------

   `\fussy'

   This declaration (which is the default) makes TeX more fussy about
line breaking. This can avoids too much space between words, but may
produce overfull boxes.

   This command cancels the effect of a previous  `\sloppy' command.
*Note \sloppy::


File: latex,  Node: \hyphenation,  Next: \linebreak,  Prev: \fussy,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\hyphenation
------------

   `\hyphenation{words}'

   The `\hyphenation' command declares allowed hyphenation points,
where `words' is a list of words, separated by spaces, in which each
hyphenation point is indicated by a `-' character.


File: latex,  Node: \linebreak,  Next: \newline,  Prev: \hyphenation,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\linebreak
----------

   `\linebreak[number]'

   The `\linebreak' command tells LaTeX to break the current line at
the point of the command.  With the optional argument, `number', you
can convert the `\linebreak' command from a demand to a request.  The
number must be a number from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more
insistent the request is.

   The `\linebreak' command causes LaTeX to stretch the line so it
extends to the right margin.


File: latex,  Node: \newline,  Next: \newpage,  Prev: \linebreak,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\newline
--------

   The `\newline' command breaks the line right where it is. It can
only be used in paragraph mode.


File: latex,  Node: \newpage,  Next: \nolinebreak,  Prev: \newline,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\newpage
--------

   The `\newpage' command ends the current page.


File: latex,  Node: \nolinebreak,  Next: \nopagebreak,  Prev: \newpage,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\nolinebreak
------------

   `\nolinebreak[number]'

   The `\nolinebreak' command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current
line at the point of the command.  With the optional argument,
`number', you can convert the `\nolinebreak' command from a demand to a
request.  The number must be a number from 0 to 4.  The higher the
number, the more insistent the request is.


File: latex,  Node: \nopagebreak,  Next: \pagebreak,  Prev: \nolinebreak,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\nopagebreak
------------

   `\nopagebreak[number]'

   The `\nopagebreak' command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current
page at the point of the command.  With the optional argument,
`number', you can convert the `\nopagebreak' command from a demand to a
request.  The number must be a number from 0 to 4.  The higher the
number, the more insistent the request is.


File: latex,  Node: \pagebreak,  Next: \sloppy,  Prev: \nopagebreak,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\pagebreak
----------

   `\pagebreak[number]'

   The `\pagebreak' command tells LaTeX to break the current page at
the point of the command.  With the optional argument, `number', you
can convert the `\pagebreak' command from a demand to a request.  The
number must be a number from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more
insistent the request is.


File: latex,  Node: \sloppy,  Prev: \pagebreak,  Up: Line & Page Breaking

\sloppy
-------

   `\sloppy'

   This declaration makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. This can
prevent overfull boxes, but may leave too much space between words.

   Lasts until a `\fussy' command is issued. *Note \fussy::.


File: latex,  Node: Making Paragraphs,  Next: Margin Notes,  Prev: Line & Page Breaking,  Up: Commands

Making Paragraphs
=================

   A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines -- lines
not containing even a `%'.  A blank line should not appear where a new
paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of
a sectioning command.

* Menu:

* \indent::     Indent this paragraph.
* \noindent::   Do not indent this paragraph.
* \par::        Another way of writing a blank line.


File: latex,  Node: \indent,  Next: \noindent,  Prev: Making Paragraphs,  Up: Making Paragraphs

\indent
-------

   `\indent'

   This produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of the
paragraph indentation.  It is used to add paragraph indentation where it
would otherwise be suppressed.


File: latex,  Node: \noindent,  Next: \par,  Prev: \indent,  Up: Making Paragraphs

\noindent
---------

   `\noindent'

   When used at the beginning of the paragraph, it suppresses the
paragraph indentation.  It has no effect when used in the middle of a
paragraph.


File: latex,  Node: \par,  Prev: \noindent,  Up: Making Paragraphs

\par
----

   Equivalent to a blank line; often used to make command or environment
definitions easier to read.


File: latex,  Node: Margin Notes,  Next: Math Formulae,  Prev: Making Paragraphs,  Up: Commands

Margin Notes
============

   The command `\marginpar[left]{right}' creates a note in the margin.
The first line will be at the same height as the line in the text where
the `\marginpar' occurs.

   When you only specify the mandatory argument `right', the text will
be placed

   * in the right margin for one-sided layout

   * in the outside margin for two-sided layout

   * in the nearest margin for two-column layout.

   By issuing the command `\reversemarginpar', you can force the
marginal notes to go into the opposite (inside) margin.

   When you specify both arguments, `left' is used for the left margin,
and `right' is used for the right margin.

   The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable
hyphenation by prefixing the first word with a `\hspace{0pt}' command.


File: latex,  Node: Math Formulae,  Next: Modes,  Prev: Margin Notes,  Up: Commands

Math Formulae
=============

   There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode:

`math'
     For Formulae that appear right in the text.

`displaymath'
     For Formulae that appear on their own line.

`equation'
     The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an
     equation number in the right margin.

   The `math' environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode,
but the `displaymath' and `equation' environments can be used only in
paragraph mode.  The `math' and `displaymath' environments are used so
often that they have the following short forms:

         \(...\)     instead of     \begin{math}...\end{math}
     
         \[...\]     instead of     \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}

   In fact, the `math' environment is so common that it has an even
shorter form:

         $ ... $     instead of     \(...\)

* Menu:

* Subscripts & Superscripts::   Also known as exponent or index.
* Math Symbols::                Various mathematical squiggles.
* Spacing in Math Mode::        Thick, medium, thin and negative spaces.
* Math Miscellany::             Stuff that doesn't fit anywhere else.


File: latex,  Node: Subscripts & Superscripts,  Next: Math Symbols,  Prev: Math Formulae,  Up: Math Formulae

Subscripts & Superscripts
-------------------------

   To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type
`_{'exp`}'.  To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type
`^{'exp`}'. LaTeX handles superscripted superscripts and all of that
stuff in the natural way.  It even does the right thing when something
has both a subscript and a superscript.


File: latex,  Node: Math Symbols,  Next: Spacing in Math Mode,  Prev: Subscripts & Superscripts,  Up: Math Formulae

Math Symbols
------------

   LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need.
The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode.  For
example, if you include `$\pi$' in your source, you will get the symbol
"pi" in your output.


File: latex,  Node: Spacing in Math Mode,  Next: Math Miscellany,  Prev: Math Symbols,  Up: Math Formulae

Spacing in Math Mode
--------------------

   In a `math' environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and puts
in the spacing that it thinks is best.  LaTeX formats mathematics the
way it's done in mathematics texts.  If you want different spacing,
LaTeX provides the following four commands for use in math mode:

  1. `\;' - a thick space

  2. `\:' - a medium space

  3. `\,' - a thin space

  4. `\!' - a negative thin space


File: latex,  Node: Math Miscellany,  Prev: Spacing in Math Mode,  Up: Math Formulae

Math Miscellany
---------------

`\cdots'
     Produces a horizontal ellipsis where the dots are raised to the
     centre of the line.

`\ddots'
     Produces a diagonal ellipsis.

`\frac{num}{den}'
     Produces the fraction `num' divided by `den'.

`\ldots'
     Produces an ellipsis.  This command works in any mode, not just
     math mode.

`\overbrace{text}'
     Generates a brace over text.

`\overline{text}'
     Causes the argument text to be overlined.

`\sqrt[root]{arg}'
     Produces the square root of its argument.  The optional argument,
     `root', determines what root to produce, i.e., the cube root of
     `x+y' would be typed as `$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$'.

`\underbrace{text}'
     Generates text with a brace underneath.

`\underline{text}'
     Causes the argument text to be underlined.  This command can also
     be used in paragraph and LR modes.

`\vdots'
     Produces a vertical ellipsis.


File: latex,  Node: Modes,  Next: Page Styles,  Prev: Math Formulae,  Up: Commands

Modes
=====

   When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of
three modes:

   * Paragraph mode

   * Math mode

   * Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short

   LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a
different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes.
Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when
LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands.

   "Paragraph mode" is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when
processing ordinary text.  In that mode, LaTeX breaks your text into
lines and breaks the lines into pages.  LaTeX is in "math mode" when
it's generating a mathematical formula.  In "LR mode", as in paragraph
mode, LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of
words with spaces between them.  However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX
keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode.
Even if you put a hundred words into an `\mbox', LaTeX would keep
typesetting them from left to right inside a single box, and then
complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line.

   LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an `\mbox'
command.  You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for
example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box.
There are also several text-producing commands and environments for
making a box that put LaTeX in paragraph mode.  The box make by one of
these commands or environments will be called a `parbox'.  When LaTeX
is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in "inner
paragraph mode".  Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is
called "outer paragraph mode".


File: latex,  Node: Page Styles,  Next: Sectioning,  Prev: Modes,  Up: Commands

Page Styles
===========

   The `\documentclass' command determines the size and position of the
page's head and foot.  The page style determines what goes in them.

* Menu:

* \maketitle::          Generate a title page.
* \pagenumbering::      Set the style used for page numbers.
* \pagestyle::		Change the headings/footings style.
* \thispagestyle::      Change the headings/footings style for this page.


File: latex,  Node: \maketitle,  Next: \pagenumbering,  Prev: Page Styles,  Up: Page Styles

\maketitle
----------

   `\maketitle'

   The `\maketitle' command generates a title on a separate title page
- except in the `article' class, where the title normally goes at the
top of the first page.  Information used to produce the title is
obtained from the following declarations:

   *Note Page Styles:: for the commands to give the information.

* Menu:

* \author::     Who wrote this stuff?
* \date::       The date the document was created.
* \thanks::     A special form of footnote.
* \title::      How to set the document title.


File: latex,  Node: \author,  Next: \date,  Prev: \maketitle,  Up: \maketitle

\author
-------

   `\author{names}'

   The `\author' command declares the author(s), where `names' is a
list of authors separated by `\and' commands.  Use `\\' to separate
lines within a single author's entry - for example, to give the
author's institution or address.


File: latex,  Node: \date,  Next: \thanks,  Prev: \author,  Up: \maketitle

\date
-----

   `\date{text}'

   The `\date' command declares text to be the document's date.  With
no `\date' command, the current date is used.


File: latex,  Node: \thanks,  Next: \title,  Prev: \date,  Up: \maketitle

\thanks
-------

   `\thanks{text}'

   The `\thanks' command produces a `\footnote' to the title.


File: latex,  Node: \title,  Prev: \thanks,  Up: \maketitle

\title
------

   `\title{text}'

   The `\title' command declares `text' to be the title.  Use `\\' to
tell LaTeX where to start a new line in a long title.


File: latex,  Node: \pagenumbering,  Next: \pagestyle,  Prev: \maketitle,  Up: Page Styles

\pagenumbering
--------------

   `\pagenumbering{num_style}'

   Specifies the style of page numbers.  Possible values of `num_style'
are:

   * `arabic' - Arabic numerals

   * `roman' - Lowercase Roman numerals

   * `Roman' - Uppercase Roman numerals

   * `alph' - Lowercase letters

   * `Alph' - Uppercase letters


File: latex,  Node: \pagestyle,  Next: \thispagestyle,  Prev: \pagenumbering,  Up: Page Styles

\pagestyle
----------

   `\pagestyle{option}'

   The `\pagestyle' command changes the style from the current page on
throughout the remainder of your document.

   The valid options are:

   * `plain' - Just a plain page number.

   * `empty' - Produces empty heads and feet - no page numbers.

   * `headings' - Puts running headings on each page.  The document
     style specifies what goes in the headings.

   * `myheadings' - You specify what is to go in the heading with the
     `\markboth' or the `\markright' commands.

* Menu:

* \markboth::           Set left and right headings.
* \markright::          Set right heading only.


File: latex,  Node: \markboth,  Next: \markright,  Prev: \pagestyle,  Up: \pagestyle

\markboth
---------

     \markboth{left head}{right head}

   The `\markboth' command is used in conjunction with the page style
`myheadings' for setting both the left and the right heading.  You
should note that a "left-hand heading" is generated by the last
`\markboth' command before the end of the page, while a "right-hand
heading" is generated by the first `\markboth' or `\markright' that
comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before the
page.


File: latex,  Node: \markright,  Prev: \markboth,  Up: \pagestyle

\markright
----------

     \markright{right head}

   The `\markright' command is used in conjunction with the page style
`myheadings' for setting the right heading, leaving the left heading
unchanged.  You should note that a "left-hand heading" is generated by
the last `\markboth' command before the end of the page, while a
"right-hand heading" is generated by the first `\markboth' or
`\markright' that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the
last one before the page.


File: latex,  Node: \thispagestyle,  Prev: \pagestyle,  Up: Page Styles

\thispagestyle
--------------

   `\thispagestyle{option}'

   The `\thispagestyle' command works in the same manner as the
`\pagestyle' command except that it changes the style for the current
page only.


File: latex,  Node: Sectioning,  Next: Spaces & Boxes,  Prev: Page Styles,  Up: Commands

Sectioning
==========

   Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into
units.

   * `\part'

   * `\chapter' (report and book class only)

   * `\section'

   * `\subsection'

   * `\subsubsection'

   * `\paragraph'

   * `\subparagraph'

   All sectioning commands take the same general form, i.e.,

   `\chapter[optional]{title}'

   In addition to providing the heading in the text, the mandatory
argument of the sectioning command can appear in two other places:

  1. The table of contents

  2. The running head at the top of the page

   You may not want the same thing to appear in these other two places
as appears in the text heading.  To handle this situation, the
sectioning commands have an `optional' argument that provides the text
for these other two purposes.

   All sectioning commands have `*'-forms that print a title, but do
not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents.

   `\appendix'

   The `\appendix' command changes the way sectional units are
numbered.  The `\appendix' command generates no text and does not
affect the numbering of parts.  The normal use of this command is
something like

     \chapter{The First Chapter}
     ...
     \appendix
     \chapter{The First Appendix}


File: latex,  Node: Spaces & Boxes,  Next: Special Characters,  Prev: Sectioning,  Up: Commands

Spaces & Boxes
==============

   All the predefined length parameters *Note Predefined lengths:: can
be used in the arguments of the box-making commands.

* Menu:

Horizontal space
* \dotfill::            Stretchable horizontal dots.
* \hfill::              Stretchable horizontal space.
* \hrulefill::          Stretchable horizontal rule.
* \hspace::             Fixed horizontal space.
Vertical space
* \addvspace::          Fixed vertical space.
* \bigskip::            Fixed vertical space.
* \medskip::            Fixed vertical space.
* \smallskip::          Fixed vertical space.
* \vfill::              Stretchable vertical space.
* \vspace::             Fixed vertical space.
Boxes
* \fbox::               Framebox.
* \framebox::           Framebox, adjustable position.
* lrbox::               An environment like \sbox.
* \makebox::            Box, adjustable position.
* \mbox::               Box.
* \newsavebox::         Declare a name for saving a box.
* \parbox::             Box with text in paragraph mode.
* \raisebox::           Raise or lower text.
* \rule::               Lines and squares.
* \savebox::            Like \makebox, but save the text for later use.
* \sbox::               Like \mbox, but save the text for later use.
* \usebox::             Print saved text.


File: latex,  Node: \dotfill,  Next: \hfill,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\dotfill
--------

   The `\dotfill' command produces a "rubber length" that produces dots
instead of just spaces.


File: latex,  Node: \hfill,  Next: \hrulefill,  Prev: \dotfill,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\hfill
------

   The `\hfill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which can
stretch or shrink horizontally.  It will be filled with spaces.


File: latex,  Node: \hrulefill,  Next: \hspace,  Prev: \hfill,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\hrulefill
----------

   The `\hrulefill' fill command produces a "rubber length" which can
stretch or shrink horizontally.  It will be filled with a horizontal
rule.


File: latex,  Node: \hspace,  Next: \addvspace,  Prev: \hrulefill,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\hspace
-------

   `\hspace[*]{length}'

   The `\hspace' command adds horizontal space.  The length of the
space can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e.,
points, inches, etc.  You can add negative as well as positive space
with an `\hspace' command.  Adding negative space is like backspacing.

   LaTeX removes horizontal space that comes at the end of a line.  If
you don't want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional `*'
argument.  Then the space is never removed.


File: latex,  Node: \addvspace,  Next: \bigskip,  Prev: \hspace,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\addvspace
----------

   `\addvspace{length}'

   The `\addvspace' command normally adds a vertical space of height
length.  However, if vertical space has already been added to the same
point in the output by a previous `\addvspace' command, then this
command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length
of the total vertical space equal to `length'.


File: latex,  Node: \bigskip,  Next: \medskip,  Prev: \addvspace,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\bigskip
--------

   The `\bigskip' command is equivalent to `\vspace{bigskipamount}'
where `bigskipamount' is determined by the document class.


File: latex,  Node: \medskip,  Next: \smallskip,  Prev: \bigskip,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\medskip
--------

   The `\medskip' command is equivalent to `\vspace{medskipamount}'
where `medskipamount' is determined by the document class.


File: latex,  Node: \smallskip,  Next: \vfill,  Prev: \medskip,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\smallskip
----------

   `\smallskip'

   The `\smallskip' command is equivalent to `\vspace{smallskipamount}'
where `smallskipamount' is determined by the document class.


File: latex,  Node: \vfill,  Next: \vspace,  Prev: \smallskip,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\vfill
------

   The `\vfill' fill command produces a rubber length which can stretch
or shrink vertically.


File: latex,  Node: \vspace,  Next: \fbox,  Prev: \vfill,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\vspace
-------

   `\vspace[*]{length}'

   The `\vspace' command adds vertical space.  The length of the space
can be expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., points,
inches, etc.  You can add negative as well as positive space with an
`\vspace' command.

   LaTeX removes vertical space that comes at the end of a page.  If you
don't want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional `*'
argument.  Then the space is never removed.


File: latex,  Node: \fbox,  Next: \framebox,  Prev: \vspace,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\fbox
-----

   `\fbox{text}'

   The `\fbox' command is exactly the same as the `\mbox' command,
except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it
creates.


File: latex,  Node: \framebox,  Next: lrbox,  Prev: \fbox,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\framebox
---------

   `\framebox[width][position]{text}'

   The `\framebox' command is exactly the same as the `\makebox'
command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that
it creates.

   The framebox command produces a rule of thickness `\fboxrule', and
leaves a space `\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the box.


File: latex,  Node: lrbox,  Next: \makebox,  Prev: \framebox,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

lrbox
-----

   `\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}'

   This is the environment form of `\sbox'.

   The text inside the environment is saved in the box `cmd', which
must have been declared with `\newsavebox'.


File: latex,  Node: \makebox,  Next: \mbox,  Prev: lrbox,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\makebox
--------

   `\makebox[width][position]{text}'

   The `\makebox' command creates a box just wide enough to contain the
`text' specified.  The width of the box is specified by the optional
`width' argument.  The position of the text within the box is
determined by the optional `position' argument.

   * `c' -- centred (default)

   * `l' -- flushleft

   * `r' -- flushright

   * `s' -- stretch from left to right margin. The text must contain
     stretchable space for this to work.

   *Note \makebox (picture)::.


File: latex,  Node: \mbox,  Next: \newsavebox,  Prev: \makebox,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\mbox
-----

   `\mbox{text}'

   The `\mbox' command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text
created by its argument.

   Use this command to prevent text from being split across lines.


File: latex,  Node: \newsavebox,  Next: \parbox,  Prev: \mbox,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\newsavebox
-----------

   `\newsavebox{cmd}'

   Declares `cmd', which must be a command name that is not already
defined, to be a bin for saving boxes.


File: latex,  Node: \parbox,  Next: \raisebox,  Prev: \newsavebox,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\parbox
-------

   `\parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text}'

   A `parbox' is a box whose contents are created in `paragraph' mode.
The `\parbox' has two mandatory arguments:

   * `width' - specifies the width of the parbox, and

   * `text' - the text that goes inside the parbox.

   LaTeX will position a `parbox' so its centre lines up with the
centre of the text line.  The optional position argument allows you to
line up either the top or bottom line in the parbox (default is top).

   If the height argument is not given, the box will have the natural
height of the text.

   The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside the
box. If it is not specified, position is used.

   * `t' -- text is placed at the top of the box.

   * `c' -- text is centred in the box.

   * `b' -- text is placed at the bottom of the box.

   * `s' -- stretch vertically. The text must contain vertically
     stretchable space for this to work.

   A `\parbox' command is used for a parbox containing a small piece of
text, with nothing fancy inside.  In particular, you shouldn't use any
of the paragraph-making environments inside a `\parbox' argument.  For
larger pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making
environment, you should use a `minipage' environment *Note minipage::.


File: latex,  Node: \raisebox,  Next: \rule,  Prev: \parbox,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\raisebox
---------

   `\raisebox{distance}[extend-above][extend-below]{text}'

   The `\raisebox' command is used to raise or lower text.  The first
mandatory argument specifies how high the text is to be raised (or
lowered if it is a negative amount).  The text itself is processed in
`LR mode'.

   Sometimes it's useful to make LaTeX think something has a different
size than it really does - or a different size than LaTeX would
normally think it has.  The `\raisebox' command lets you tell LaTeX how
tall it is.

   The first optional argument, `extend-above', makes LaTeX think that
the text extends above the line by the amount specified.  The second
optional argument, `extend-below', makes LaTeX think that the text
extends below the line by the amount specified.


File: latex,  Node: \rule,  Next: \savebox,  Prev: \raisebox,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\rule
-----

   `\rule[raise-height]{width}{thickness}'

   The `\rule' command is used to produce horizontal lines.  The
arguments are defined as follows:

   * `raise-height' - specifies how high to raise the rule (optional)

   * `width' - specifies the length of the rule (mandatory)

   * `thickness' - specifies the thickness of the rule (mandatory)


File: latex,  Node: \savebox,  Next: \sbox,  Prev: \rule,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\savebox
--------

      \savebox{cmd}[width][pos]{text}

   This command typeset `text' in a box just as for `\makebox'.
However, instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in bin
`cmd', which must have been declared with `\newsavebox'.


File: latex,  Node: \sbox,  Next: \usebox,  Prev: \savebox,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\sbox
-----

   `\sbox{text}'

   This commands typeset `text' in a box just as for `\mbox'.  However,
instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in bin `cmd', which
must have been declared with `\newsavebox'.


File: latex,  Node: \usebox,  Prev: \sbox,  Up: Spaces & Boxes

\usebox
-------

   `\usebox{cmd}'

   Prints the box most recently saved in bin `cmd' by a `\savebox'
command.


File: latex,  Node: Special Characters,  Next: Splitting the Input,  Prev: Spaces & Boxes,  Up: Commands

Special Characters
==================

   The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called
"special printing characters", or simply "special characters".

                            # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }

   Whenever you put one of these special characters into your file, you
are doing something special.  If you simply want the character to be
printed just as any other letter, include a `\' in front of the
character.  For example, `\$' will produce `$' in your output.

   One exception to this rule is the `\' itself because `\\' has its
own special meaning.  A `\' is produced by typing `$\backslash$' in
your file.

   Also, `\~' means `place a tilde accent over the following letter',
so you will probably want to use `\verb' instead.

   In addition, you can access any character of a font once you know its
number by using the `\symbol' command. For example, the character used
for displaying spaces in the `\verb*' command has the code decimal 32,
so it can be typed as `\symbol{32}'.

   You can also specify octal numbers with `'' or hexadecimal numbers
with `"', so the previous example could also be written as
`\symbol{'40}' or `\symbol{"20}'.


File: latex,  Node: Splitting the Input,  Next: Starting & Ending,  Prev: Special Characters,  Up: Commands

Splitting the Input
===================

   A large document requires a lot of input.  Rather than putting the
whole input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into
several smaller ones.  Regardless of how many separate files you use,
there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type
when you run LaTeX.

* Menu:

* \include::            Conditionally include a file.
* \includeonly::        Determine which files are included.
* \input::              Unconditionally include a file.


File: latex,  Node: \include,  Next: \includeonly,  Prev: Splitting the Input,  Up: Splitting the Input

\include
--------

   `\include{file}'

   The `\include' command is used in conjunction with the
`\includeonly' command for selective inclusion of files.  The `file'
argument is the first name of a file, denoting `file.tex'.  If `file'
is one the file names in the file list of the `\includeonly' command or
if there is no `\includeonly' command, the `\include' command is
equivalent to

     \clearpage \input{file} \clearpage

   except that if the file `file.tex' does not exist, then a warning
message rather than an error is produced.  If the file is not in the
file list, the `\include' command is equivalent to `\clearpage'.

   The `\include' command may not appear in the preamble or in a file
read by another `\include' command.


File: latex,  Node: \includeonly,  Next: \input,  Prev: \include,  Up: Splitting the Input

\includeonly
------------

   `\includeonly{'file_list`}'

   The `\includeonly' command controls which files will be read in by
an `\include' command.  file_list should be a comma-separated list of
filenames. Each filename must match exactly a filename specified in a
`\include' command. This command can only appear in the preamble.


File: latex,  Node: \input,  Prev: \includeonly,  Up: Splitting the Input

\input
------

   `\input{file}'

   The `\input' command causes the indicated `file' to be read and
processed, exactly as if its contents had been inserted in the current
file at that point.  The file name may be a complete file name with
extension or just a first name, in which case the file `file.tex' is
used.


File: latex,  Node: Starting & Ending,  Next: Table of Contents,  Prev: Splitting the Input,  Up: Commands

Starting & Ending
=================

   Your input file must contain the following commands as a minimum:

      \documentclass{class}
      \begin{document}
        ... your text goes here ...
      \end{document}

   where the `class' selected is one of the valid classes for LaTeX.
*Note Document Classes:: (and *note Overview::.), for details of the
various document classes available locally.

   You may include other LaTeX commands between the `\documentclass'
and the `\begin{document}' commands (i.e., in the `preamble').


File: latex,  Node: Table of Contents,  Next: Terminal Input/Output,  Prev: Starting & Ending,  Up: Commands

Table of Contents
=================

   A table of contents is produced with the `\tableofcontents' command.
You put the command right where you want the table of contents to go;
LaTeX does the rest for you.  It produces a heading, but it does not
automatically start a new page.  If you want a new page after the table
of contents, include a `\newpage' command after the `\tableofcontents'
command.

   There are similar commands `\listoffigures' and `\listoftables'  for
producing a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively.
Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents.

   NOTE: If you want any of these items to be generated, you cannot have
the `\nofiles' command in your document.

* Menu:

* \addcontentsline::    Add an entry to table of contents etc.
* \addtocontents::      Add text directly to table of contents file etc.


File: latex,  Node: \addcontentsline,  Next: \addtocontents,  Prev: Table of Contents,  Up: Table of Contents

\addcontentsline
----------------

   `\addcontentsline{file}{sec_unit}{entry}'

   The `\addcontentsline' command adds an entry to the specified list
or table where:

   * `file' is the extension of the file on which information is to be
     written: `toc' (table of contents), `lof' (list of figures), or
     `lot' (list of tables).

   * `sec_unit' controls the formatting of the entry.  It should be one
     of the following, depending upon the value of the file argument:
       1. `toc' -- the name of the sectional unit, such as part or
          subsection.

       2. `lof' -- figure

       3. `lot' -- table

   * `entry' is the text of the entry.

