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File: cpp.info,  Node: Stringification,  Next: Concatenation,  Prev: Macro Arguments,  Up: Macros

Stringification
===============

   Sometimes you may want to convert a macro argument into a string
constant.  Parameters are not replaced inside string constants, but you
can use the `#' preprocessing operator instead.  When a macro parameter
is used with a leading `#', the preprocessor replaces it with the
literal text of the actual argument, converted to a string constant.
Unlike normal parameter replacement, the argument is not macro-expanded
first.  This is called "stringification".

   There is no way to combine an argument with surrounding text and
stringify it all together.  Instead, you can write a series of adjacent
string constants and stringified arguments.  The preprocessor will
replace the stringified arguments with string constants.  The C
compiler will then combine all the adjacent string constants into one
long string.

   Here is an example of a macro definition that uses stringification:

     #define WARN_IF(EXP) \
     do { if (EXP) \
             fprintf (stderr, "Warning: " #EXP "\n"); } \
     while (0)
     WARN_IF (x == 0);
          ==> do { if (x == 0)
                fprintf (stderr, "Warning: " "x == 0" "\n"); } while (0);

The argument for `EXP' is substituted once, as-is, into the `if'
statement, and once, stringified, into the argument to `fprintf'.  If
`x' were a macro, it would be expanded in the `if' statement, but not
in the string.

   The `do' and `while (0)' are a kludge to make it possible to write
`WARN_IF (ARG);', which the resemblance of `WARN_IF' to a function
would make C programmers want to do; see *Note Swallowing the
Semicolon::.

   Stringification in C involves more than putting double-quote
characters around the fragment.  The preprocessor backslash-escapes the
quotes surrounding embedded string constants, and all backslashes
within string and character constants, in order to get a valid C string
constant with the proper contents.  Thus, stringifying `p = "foo\n";'
results in "p = \"foo\\n\";".  However, backslashes that are not inside
string or character constants are not duplicated: `\n' by itself
stringifies to "\n".

   All leading and trailing whitespace in text being stringified is
ignored.  Any sequence of whitespace in the middle of the text is
converted to a single space in the stringified result.  Comments are
replaced by whitespace long before stringification happens, so they
never appear in stringified text.

   There is no way to convert a macro argument into a character
constant.

   If you want to stringify the result of expansion of a macro argument,
you have to use two levels of macros.

     #define xstr(s) str(s)
     #define str(s) #s
     #define foo 4
     str (foo)
          ==> "foo"
     xstr (foo)
          ==> xstr (4)
          ==> str (4)
          ==> "4"

   `s' is stringified when it is used in `str', so it is not
macro-expanded first.  But `s' is an ordinary argument to `xstr', so it
is completely macro-expanded before `xstr' itself is expanded (*note
Argument Prescan::).  Therefore, by the time `str' gets to its
argument, it has already been macro-expanded.


File: cpp.info,  Node: Concatenation,  Next: Variadic Macros,  Prev: Stringification,  Up: Macros

Concatenation
=============

   It is often useful to merge two tokens into one while expanding
macros.  This is called "token pasting" or "token concatenation".  The
`##' preprocessing operator performs token pasting.  When a macro is
expanded, the two tokens on either side of each `##' operator are
combined into a single token, which then replaces the `##' and the two
original tokens in the macro expansion.  Usually both will be
identifiers, or one will be an identifier and the other a preprocessing
number.  When pasted, they make a longer identifier.  This isn't the
only valid case.  It is also possible to concatenate two numbers (or a
number and a name, such as `1.5' and `e3') into a number.  Also,
multi-character operators such as `+=' can be formed by token pasting.

   However, two tokens that don't together form a valid token cannot be
pasted together.  For example, you cannot concatenate `x' with `+' in
either order.  If you try, the preprocessor issues a warning and emits
the two tokens.  Whether it puts white space between the tokens is
undefined.  It is common to find unnecessary uses of `##' in complex
macros.  If you get this warning, it is likely that you can simply
remove the `##'.

   Both the tokens combined by `##' could come from the macro body, but
you could just as well write them as one token in the first place.
Token pasting is most useful when one or both of the tokens comes from a
macro argument.  If either of the tokens next to an `##' is a parameter
name, it is replaced by its actual argument before `##' executes.  As
with stringification, the actual argument is not macro-expanded first.
If the argument is empty, that `##' has no effect.

   Keep in mind that the C preprocessor converts comments to whitespace
before macros are even considered.  Therefore, you cannot create a
comment by concatenating `/' and `*'.  You can put as much whitespace
between `##' and its operands as you like, including comments, and you
can put comments in arguments that will be concatenated.  However, it
is an error if `##' appears at either end of a macro body.

   Consider a C program that interprets named commands.  There probably
needs to be a table of commands, perhaps an array of structures declared
as follows:

     struct command
     {
       char *name;
       void (*function) (void);
     };
     
     struct command commands[] =
     {
       { "quit", quit_command },
       { "help", help_command },
       ...
     };

   It would be cleaner not to have to give each command name twice,
once in the string constant and once in the function name.  A macro
which takes the name of a command as an argument can make this
unnecessary.  The string constant can be created with stringification,
and the function name by concatenating the argument with `_command'.
Here is how it is done:

     #define COMMAND(NAME)  { #NAME, NAME ## _command }
     
     struct command commands[] =
     {
       COMMAND (quit),
       COMMAND (help),
       ...
     };


File: cpp.info,  Node: Variadic Macros,  Next: Predefined Macros,  Prev: Concatenation,  Up: Macros

Variadic Macros
===============

   A macro can be declared to accept a variable number of arguments
much as a function can.  The syntax for defining the macro is similar
to that of a function.  Here is an example:

     #define eprintf(...) fprintf (stderr, __VA_ARGS__)

   This kind of macro is called "variadic".  When the macro is invoked,
all the tokens in its argument list after the last named argument (this
macro has none), including any commas, become the "variable argument".
This sequence of tokens replaces the identifier `__VA_ARGS__' in the
macro body wherever it appears.  Thus, we have this expansion:

     eprintf ("%s:%d: ", input_file, lineno)
          ==>  fprintf (stderr, "%s:%d: ", input_file, lineno)

   The variable argument is completely macro-expanded before it is
inserted into the macro expansion, just like an ordinary argument.  You
may use the `#' and `##' operators to stringify the variable argument
or to paste its leading or trailing token with another token.  (But see
below for an important special case for `##'.)

   If your macro is complicated, you may want a more descriptive name
for the variable argument than `__VA_ARGS__'.  CPP permits this, as an
extension.  You may write an argument name immediately before the
`...'; that name is used for the variable argument.  The `eprintf'
macro above could be written

     #define eprintf(args...) fprintf (stderr, args)

using this extension.  You cannot use `__VA_ARGS__' and this extension
in the same macro.

   You can have named arguments as well as variable arguments in a
variadic macro.  We could define `eprintf' like this, instead:

     #define eprintf(format, ...) fprintf (stderr, format, __VA_ARGS__)

This formulation looks more descriptive, but unfortunately it is less
flexible: you must now supply at least one argument after the format
string.  In standard C, you cannot omit the comma separating the named
argument from the variable arguments.  Furthermore, if you leave the
variable argument empty, you will get a syntax error, because there
will be an extra comma after the format string.

     eprintf("success!\n", );
          ==> fprintf(stderr, "success!\n", );

   GNU CPP has a pair of extensions which deal with this problem.
First, you are allowed to leave the variable argument out entirely:

     eprintf ("success!\n")
          ==> fprintf(stderr, "success!\n", );

Second, the `##' token paste operator has a special meaning when placed
between a comma and a variable argument.  If you write

     #define eprintf(format, ...) fprintf (stderr, format, ##__VA_ARGS__)

and the variable argument is left out when the `eprintf' macro is used,
then the comma before the `##' will be deleted.  This does _not_ happen
if you pass an empty argument, nor does it happen if the token
preceding `##' is anything other than a comma.

     eprintf ("success!\n")
          ==> fprintf(stderr, "success!\n");

The above explanation is ambiguous about the case where the only macro
parameter is a variable arguments parameter, as it is meaningless to
try to distinguish whether no argument at all is an empty argument or a
missing argument.  In this case the C99 standard is clear that the
comma must remain, however the existing GCC extension used to swallow
the comma.  So CPP retains the comma when conforming to a specific C
standard, and drops it otherwise.

   C99 mandates that the only place the identifier `__VA_ARGS__' can
appear is in the replacement list of a variadic macro.  It may not be
used as a macro name, macro argument name, or within a different type
of macro.  It may also be forbidden in open text; the standard is
ambiguous.  We recommend you avoid using it except for its defined
purpose.

   Variadic macros are a new feature in C99.  GNU CPP has supported them
for a long time, but only with a named variable argument (`args...',
not `...' and `__VA_ARGS__').  If you are concerned with portability to
previous versions of GCC, you should use only named variable arguments.
On the other hand, if you are concerned with portability to other
conforming implementations of C99, you should use only `__VA_ARGS__'.

   Previous versions of CPP implemented the comma-deletion extension
much more generally.  We have restricted it in this release to minimize
the differences from C99.  To get the same effect with both this and
previous versions of GCC, the token preceding the special `##' must be
a comma, and there must be white space between that comma and whatever
comes immediately before it:

     #define eprintf(format, args...) fprintf (stderr, format , ##args)

*Note Differences from previous versions::, for the gory details.


File: cpp.info,  Node: Predefined Macros,  Next: Undefining and Redefining Macros,  Prev: Variadic Macros,  Up: Macros

Predefined Macros
=================

   Several object-like macros are predefined; you use them without
supplying their definitions.  They fall into three classes: standard,
common, and system-specific.

   In C++, there is a fourth category, the named operators.  They act
like predefined macros, but you cannot undefine them.

* Menu:

* Standard Predefined Macros::
* Common Predefined Macros::
* System-specific Predefined Macros::
* C++ Named Operators::


File: cpp.info,  Node: Standard Predefined Macros,  Next: Common Predefined Macros,  Up: Predefined Macros

Standard Predefined Macros
--------------------------

   The standard predefined macros are specified by the relevant
language standards, so they are available with all compilers that
implement those standards.  Older compilers may not provide all of
them.  Their names all start with double underscores.

`__FILE__'
     This macro expands to the name of the current input file, in the
     form of a C string constant.  This is the path by which the
     preprocessor opened the file, not the short name specified in
     `#include' or as the input file name argument.  For example,
     `"/usr/local/include/myheader.h"' is a possible expansion of this
     macro.

`__LINE__'
     This macro expands to the current input line number, in the form
     of a decimal integer constant.  While we call it a predefined
     macro, it's a pretty strange macro, since its "definition" changes
     with each new line of source code.

   `__FILE__' and `__LINE__' are useful in generating an error message
to report an inconsistency detected by the program; the message can
state the source line at which the inconsistency was detected.  For
example,

     fprintf (stderr, "Internal error: "
                      "negative string length "
                      "%d at %s, line %d.",
              length, __FILE__, __LINE__);

   An `#include' directive changes the expansions of `__FILE__' and
`__LINE__' to correspond to the included file.  At the end of that
file, when processing resumes on the input file that contained the
`#include' directive, the expansions of `__FILE__' and `__LINE__'
revert to the values they had before the `#include' (but `__LINE__' is
then incremented by one as processing moves to the line after the
`#include').

   A `#line' directive changes `__LINE__', and may change `__FILE__' as
well.  *Note Line Control::.

   C99 introduces `__func__', and GCC has provided `__FUNCTION__' for a
long time.  Both of these are strings containing the name of the
current function (there are slight semantic differences; see the GCC
manual).  Neither of them is a macro; the preprocessor does not know the
name of the current function.  They tend to be useful in conjunction
with `__FILE__' and `__LINE__', though.

`__DATE__'
     This macro expands to a string constant that describes the date on
     which the preprocessor is being run.  The string constant contains
     eleven characters and looks like `"Feb 12 1996"'.  If the day of
     the month is less than 10, it is padded with a space on the left.

     If GCC cannot determine the current date, it will emit a warning
     message (once per compilation) and `__DATE__' will expand to
     `"??? ?? ????"'.

`__TIME__'
     This macro expands to a string constant that describes the time at
     which the preprocessor is being run.  The string constant contains
     eight characters and looks like `"23:59:01"'.

     If GCC cannot determine the current time, it will emit a warning
     message (once per compilation) and `__TIME__' will expand to
     `"??:??:??"'.

`__STDC__'
     In normal operation, this macro expands to the constant 1, to
     signify that this compiler conforms to ISO Standard C.  If GNU CPP
     is used with a compiler other than GCC, this is not necessarily
     true; however, the preprocessor always conforms to the standard
     unless the `-traditional-cpp' option is used.

     This macro is not defined if the `-traditional-cpp' option is used.

     On some hosts, the system compiler uses a different convention,
     where `__STDC__' is normally 0, but is 1 if the user specifies
     strict conformance to the C Standard.  CPP follows the host
     convention when processing system header files, but when
     processing user files `__STDC__' is always 1.  This has been
     reported to cause problems; for instance, some versions of Solaris
     provide X Windows headers that expect `__STDC__' to be either
     undefined or 1.  *Note Invocation::.

`__STDC_VERSION__'
     This macro expands to the C Standard's version number, a long
     integer constant of the form `YYYYMML' where YYYY and MM are the
     year and month of the Standard version.  This signifies which
     version of the C Standard the compiler conforms to.  Like
     `__STDC__', this is not necessarily accurate for the entire
     implementation, unless GNU CPP is being used with GCC.

     The value `199409L' signifies the 1989 C standard as amended in
     1994, which is the current default; the value `199901L' signifies
     the 1999 revision of the C standard.  Support for the 1999
     revision is not yet complete.

     This macro is not defined if the `-traditional-cpp' option is
     used, nor when compiling C++ or Objective-C.

`__STDC_HOSTED__'
     This macro is defined, with value 1, if the compiler's target is a
     "hosted environment".  A hosted environment has the complete
     facilities of the standard C library available.

`__cplusplus'
     This macro is defined when the C++ compiler is in use.  You can use
     `__cplusplus' to test whether a header is compiled by a C compiler
     or a C++ compiler.  This macro is similar to `__STDC_VERSION__', in
     that it expands to a version number.  A fully conforming
     implementation of the 1998 C++ standard will define this macro to
     `199711L'.  The GNU C++ compiler is not yet fully conforming, so
     it uses `1' instead.  We hope to complete our implementation in
     the near future.

`__OBJC__'
     This macro is defined, with value 1, when the Objective-C compiler
     is in use.  You can use `__OBJC__' to test whether a header is
     compiled by a C compiler or a Objective-C compiler.

`__ASSEMBLER__'
     This macro is defined with value 1 when preprocessing assembly
     language.


File: cpp.info,  Node: Common Predefined Macros,  Next: System-specific Predefined Macros,  Prev: Standard Predefined Macros,  Up: Predefined Macros

Common Predefined Macros
------------------------

   The common predefined macros are GNU C extensions.  They are
available with the same meanings regardless of the machine or operating
system on which you are using GNU C.  Their names all start with double
underscores.

`__GNUC__'
`__GNUC_MINOR__'
`__GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__'
     These macros are defined by all GNU compilers that use the C
     preprocessor: C, C++, and Objective-C.  Their values are the major
     version, minor version, and patch level of the compiler, as integer
     constants.  For example, GCC 3.2.1 will define `__GNUC__' to 3,
     `__GNUC_MINOR__' to 2, and `__GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__' to 1.  They are
     defined only when the entire compiler is in use; if you invoke the
     preprocessor directly, they are not defined.

     `__GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__' is new to GCC 3.0; it is also present in the
     widely-used development snapshots leading up to 3.0 (which identify
     themselves as GCC 2.96 or 2.97, depending on which snapshot you
     have).

     If all you need to know is whether or not your program is being
     compiled by GCC, you can simply test `__GNUC__'.  If you need to
     write code which depends on a specific version, you must be more
     careful.  Each time the minor version is increased, the patch
     level is reset to zero; each time the major version is increased
     (which happens rarely), the minor version and patch level are
     reset.  If you wish to use the predefined macros directly in the
     conditional, you will need to write it like this:

          /* Test for GCC > 3.2.0 */
          #if __GNUC__ > 3 || \
              (__GNUC__ == 3 && (__GNUC_MINOR__ > 2 || \
                                 (__GNUC_MINOR__ == 2 && \
                                  __GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__ > 0))

     Another approach is to use the predefined macros to calculate a
     single number, then compare that against a threshold:

          #define GCC_VERSION (__GNUC__ * 10000 \
                               + __GNUC_MINOR__ * 100 \
                               + __GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__)
          ...
          /* Test for GCC > 3.2.0 */
          #if GCC_VERSION > 30200

     Many people find this form easier to understand.

`__GNUG__'
     The GNU C++ compiler defines this.  Testing it is equivalent to
     testing `(__GNUC__ && __cplusplus)'.

`__STRICT_ANSI__'
     GCC defines this macro if and only if the `-ansi' switch, or a
     `-std' switch specifying strict conformance to some version of ISO
     C, was specified when GCC was invoked.  It is defined to `1'.
     This macro exists primarily to direct GNU libc's header files to
     restrict their definitions to the minimal set found in the 1989 C
     standard.

`__BASE_FILE__'
     This macro expands to the name of the main input file, in the form
     of a C string constant.  This is the source file that was specified
     on the command line of the preprocessor or C compiler.

`__INCLUDE_LEVEL__'
     This macro expands to a decimal integer constant that represents
     the depth of nesting in include files.  The value of this macro is
     incremented on every `#include' directive and decremented at the
     end of every included file.  It starts out at 0, it's value within
     the base file specified on the command line.

`__ELF__'
     This macro is defined if the target uses the ELF object format.

`__VERSION__'
     This macro expands to a string constant which describes the
     version of the compiler in use.  You should not rely on its
     contents having any particular form, but it can be counted on to
     contain at least the release number.

`__OPTIMIZE__'
`__OPTIMIZE_SIZE__'
`__NO_INLINE__'
     These macros describe the compilation mode.  `__OPTIMIZE__' is
     defined in all optimizing compilations.  `__OPTIMIZE_SIZE__' is
     defined if the compiler is optimizing for size, not speed.
     `__NO_INLINE__' is defined if no functions will be inlined into
     their callers (when not optimizing, or when inlining has been
     specifically disabled by `-fno-inline').

     These macros cause certain GNU header files to provide optimized
     definitions, using macros or inline functions, of system library
     functions.  You should not use these macros in any way unless you
     make sure that programs will execute with the same effect whether
     or not they are defined.  If they are defined, their value is 1.

`__CHAR_UNSIGNED__'
     GCC defines this macro if and only if the data type `char' is
     unsigned on the target machine.  It exists to cause the standard
     header file `limits.h' to work correctly.  You should not use this
     macro yourself; instead, refer to the standard macros defined in
     `limits.h'.

`__WCHAR_UNSIGNED__'
     Like `__CHAR_UNSIGNED__', this macro is defined if and only if the
     data type `wchar_t' is unsigned and the front-end is in C++ mode.

`__REGISTER_PREFIX__'
     This macro expands to a single token (not a string constant) which
     is the prefix applied to CPU register names in assembly language
     for this target.  You can use it to write assembly that is usable
     in multiple environments.  For example, in the `m68k-aout'
     environment it expands to nothing, but in the `m68k-coff'
     environment it expands to a single `%'.

`__USER_LABEL_PREFIX__'
     This macro expands to a single token which is the prefix applied to
     user labels (symbols visible to C code) in assembly.  For example,
     in the `m68k-aout' environment it expands to an `_', but in the
     `m68k-coff' environment it expands to nothing.

     This macro will have the correct definition even if
     `-f(no-)underscores' is in use, but it will not be correct if
     target-specific options that adjust this prefix are used (e.g. the
     OSF/rose `-mno-underscores' option).

`__SIZE_TYPE__'
`__PTRDIFF_TYPE__'
`__WCHAR_TYPE__'
`__WINT_TYPE__'
     These macros are defined to the correct underlying types for the
     `size_t', `ptrdiff_t', `wchar_t', and `wint_t' typedefs,
     respectively.  They exist to make the standard header files
     `stddef.h' and `wchar.h' work correctly.  You should not use these
     macros directly; instead, include the appropriate headers and use
     the typedefs.

`__CHAR_BIT__'
     Defined to the number of bits used in the representation of the
     `char' data type.  It exists to make the standard header given
     numerical limits work correctly.  You should not use this macro
     directly; instead, include the appropriate headers.

`__SCHAR_MAX__'
`__WCHAR_MAX__'
`__SHRT_MAX__'
`__INT_MAX__'
`__LONG_MAX__'
`__LONG_LONG_MAX__'
     Defined to the maximum value of the `signed char', `wchar_t',
     `signed short', `signed int', `signed long', and `signed long
     long' types respectively.  They exist to make the standard header
     given numerical limits work correctly.  You should not use these
     macros directly; instead, include the appropriate headers.

`__USING_SJLJ_EXCEPTIONS__'
     This macro is defined, with value 1, if the compiler uses the old
     mechanism based on `setjmp' and `longjmp' for exception handling.

`__NEXT_RUNTIME__'
     This macro is defined, with value 1, if (and only if) the NeXT
     runtime (as in `-fnext-runtime') is in use for Objective-C.  If
     the GNU runtime is used, this macro is not defined, so that you
     can use this macro to determine which runtime (NeXT or GNU) is
     being used.

`__LP64__'

`_LP64'
     These macros are defined, with value 1, if (and only if) the
     compilation is for a target where `long int' and pointer both use
     64-bits and `int' uses 32-bit.


File: cpp.info,  Node: System-specific Predefined Macros,  Next: C++ Named Operators,  Prev: Common Predefined Macros,  Up: Predefined Macros

System-specific Predefined Macros
---------------------------------

   The C preprocessor normally predefines several macros that indicate
what type of system and machine is in use.  They are obviously
different on each target supported by GCC.  This manual, being for all
systems and machines, cannot tell you what their names are, but you can
use `cpp -dM' to see them all.  *Note Invocation::.  All system-specific
predefined macros expand to the constant 1, so you can test them with
either `#ifdef' or `#if'.

   The C standard requires that all system-specific macros be part of
the "reserved namespace".  All names which begin with two underscores,
or an underscore and a capital letter, are reserved for the compiler and
library to use as they wish.  However, historically system-specific
macros have had names with no special prefix; for instance, it is common
to find `unix' defined on Unix systems.  For all such macros, GCC
provides a parallel macro with two underscores added at the beginning
and the end.  If `unix' is defined, `__unix__' will be defined too.
There will never be more than two underscores; the parallel of `_mips'
is `__mips__'.

   When the `-ansi' option, or any `-std' option that requests strict
conformance, is given to the compiler, all the system-specific
predefined macros outside the reserved namespace are suppressed.  The
parallel macros, inside the reserved namespace, remain defined.

   We are slowly phasing out all predefined macros which are outside the
reserved namespace.  You should never use them in new programs, and we
encourage you to correct older code to use the parallel macros whenever
you find it.  We don't recommend you use the system-specific macros that
are in the reserved namespace, either.  It is better in the long run to
check specifically for features you need, using a tool such as
`autoconf'.


File: cpp.info,  Node: C++ Named Operators,  Prev: System-specific Predefined Macros,  Up: Predefined Macros

C++ Named Operators
-------------------

   In C++, there are eleven keywords which are simply alternate
spellings of operators normally written with punctuation.  These
keywords are treated as such even in the preprocessor.  They function
as operators in `#if', and they cannot be defined as macros or
poisoned.  In C, you can request that those keywords take their C++
meaning by including `iso646.h'.  That header defines each one as a
normal object-like macro expanding to the appropriate punctuator.

   These are the named operators and their corresponding punctuators:

Named Operator   Punctuator
`and'            `&&'
`and_eq'         `&='
`bitand'         `&'
`bitor'          `|'
`compl'          `~'
`not'            `!'
`not_eq'         `!='
`or'             `||'
`or_eq'          `|='
`xor'            `^'
`xor_eq'         `^='


File: cpp.info,  Node: Undefining and Redefining Macros,  Next: Directives Within Macro Arguments,  Prev: Predefined Macros,  Up: Macros

Undefining and Redefining Macros
================================

   If a macro ceases to be useful, it may be "undefined" with the
`#undef' directive.  `#undef' takes a single argument, the name of the
macro to undefine.  You use the bare macro name, even if the macro is
function-like.  It is an error if anything appears on the line after
the macro name.  `#undef' has no effect if the name is not a macro.

     #define FOO 4
     x = FOO;        ==> x = 4;
     #undef FOO
     x = FOO;        ==> x = FOO;

   Once a macro has been undefined, that identifier may be "redefined"
as a macro by a subsequent `#define' directive.  The new definition
need not have any resemblance to the old definition.

   However, if an identifier which is currently a macro is redefined,
then the new definition must be "effectively the same" as the old one.
Two macro definitions are effectively the same if:
   * Both are the same type of macro (object- or function-like).

   * All the tokens of the replacement list are the same.

   * If there are any parameters, they are the same.

   * Whitespace appears in the same places in both.  It need not be
     exactly the same amount of whitespace, though.  Remember that
     comments count as whitespace.

These definitions are effectively the same:
     #define FOUR (2 + 2)
     #define FOUR         (2    +    2)
     #define FOUR (2 /* two */ + 2)

but these are not:
     #define FOUR (2 + 2)
     #define FOUR ( 2+2 )
     #define FOUR (2 * 2)
     #define FOUR(score,and,seven,years,ago) (2 + 2)

   If a macro is redefined with a definition that is not effectively the
same as the old one, the preprocessor issues a warning and changes the
macro to use the new definition.  If the new definition is effectively
the same, the redefinition is silently ignored.  This allows, for
instance, two different headers to define a common macro.  The
preprocessor will only complain if the definitions do not match.


File: cpp.info,  Node: Directives Within Macro Arguments,  Next: Macro Pitfalls,  Prev: Undefining and Redefining Macros,  Up: Macros

Directives Within Macro Arguments
=================================

   Occasionally it is convenient to use preprocessor directives within
the arguments of a macro.  The C and C++ standards declare that
behavior in these cases is undefined.

   Versions of CPP prior to 3.2 would reject such constructs with an
error message.  This was the only syntactic difference between normal
functions and function-like macros, so it seemed attractive to remove
this limitation, and people would often be surprised that they could
not use macros in this way.  Moreover, sometimes people would use
conditional compilation in the argument list to a normal library
function like `printf', only to find that after a library upgrade
`printf' had changed to be a function-like macro, and their code would
no longer compile.  So from version 3.2 we changed CPP to successfully
process arbitrary directives within macro arguments in exactly the same
way as it would have processed the directive were the function-like
macro invocation not present.

   If, within a macro invocation, that macro is redefined, then the new
definition takes effect in time for argument pre-expansion, but the
original definition is still used for argument replacement.  Here is a
pathological example:

     #define f(x) x x
     f (1
     #undef f
     #define f 2
     f)

which expands to

     1 2 1 2

with the semantics described above.


File: cpp.info,  Node: Macro Pitfalls,  Prev: Directives Within Macro Arguments,  Up: Macros

Macro Pitfalls
==============

   In this section we describe some special rules that apply to macros
and macro expansion, and point out certain cases in which the rules have
counter-intuitive consequences that you must watch out for.

* Menu:

* Misnesting::
* Operator Precedence Problems::
* Swallowing the Semicolon::
* Duplication of Side Effects::
* Self-Referential Macros::
* Argument Prescan::
* Newlines in Arguments::


File: cpp.info,  Node: Misnesting,  Next: Operator Precedence Problems,  Up: Macro Pitfalls

Misnesting
----------

   When a macro is called with arguments, the arguments are substituted
into the macro body and the result is checked, together with the rest of
the input file, for more macro calls.  It is possible to piece together
a macro call coming partially from the macro body and partially from the
arguments.  For example,

     #define twice(x) (2*(x))
     #define call_with_1(x) x(1)
     call_with_1 (twice)
          ==> twice(1)
          ==> (2*(1))

   Macro definitions do not have to have balanced parentheses.  By
writing an unbalanced open parenthesis in a macro body, it is possible
to create a macro call that begins inside the macro body but ends
outside of it.  For example,

     #define strange(file) fprintf (file, "%s %d",
     ...
     strange(stderr) p, 35)
          ==> fprintf (stderr, "%s %d", p, 35)

   The ability to piece together a macro call can be useful, but the
use of unbalanced open parentheses in a macro body is just confusing,
and should be avoided.


File: cpp.info,  Node: Operator Precedence Problems,  Next: Swallowing the Semicolon,  Prev: Misnesting,  Up: Macro Pitfalls

Operator Precedence Problems
----------------------------

   You may have noticed that in most of the macro definition examples
shown above, each occurrence of a macro argument name had parentheses
around it.  In addition, another pair of parentheses usually surround
the entire macro definition.  Here is why it is best to write macros
that way.

   Suppose you define a macro as follows,

     #define ceil_div(x, y) (x + y - 1) / y

whose purpose is to divide, rounding up.  (One use for this operation is
to compute how many `int' objects are needed to hold a certain number
of `char' objects.)  Then suppose it is used as follows:

     a = ceil_div (b & c, sizeof (int));
          ==> a = (b & c + sizeof (int) - 1) / sizeof (int);

This does not do what is intended.  The operator-precedence rules of C
make it equivalent to this:

     a = (b & (c + sizeof (int) - 1)) / sizeof (int);

What we want is this:

     a = ((b & c) + sizeof (int) - 1)) / sizeof (int);

Defining the macro as

     #define ceil_div(x, y) ((x) + (y) - 1) / (y)

provides the desired result.

   Unintended grouping can result in another way.  Consider `sizeof
ceil_div(1, 2)'.  That has the appearance of a C expression that would
compute the size of the type of `ceil_div (1, 2)', but in fact it means
something very different.  Here is what it expands to:

     sizeof ((1) + (2) - 1) / (2)

This would take the size of an integer and divide it by two.  The
precedence rules have put the division outside the `sizeof' when it was
intended to be inside.

   Parentheses around the entire macro definition prevent such problems.
Here, then, is the recommended way to define `ceil_div':

     #define ceil_div(x, y) (((x) + (y) - 1) / (y))


File: cpp.info,  Node: Swallowing the Semicolon,  Next: Duplication of Side Effects,  Prev: Operator Precedence Problems,  Up: Macro Pitfalls

Swallowing the Semicolon
------------------------

   Often it is desirable to define a macro that expands into a compound
statement.  Consider, for example, the following macro, that advances a
pointer (the argument `p' says where to find it) across whitespace
characters:

     #define SKIP_SPACES(p, limit)  \
     { char *lim = (limit);         \
       while (p < lim) {            \
         if (*p++ != ' ') {         \
           p--; break; }}}

Here backslash-newline is used to split the macro definition, which must
be a single logical line, so that it resembles the way such code would
be laid out if not part of a macro definition.

   A call to this macro might be `SKIP_SPACES (p, lim)'.  Strictly
speaking, the call expands to a compound statement, which is a complete
statement with no need for a semicolon to end it.  However, since it
looks like a function call, it minimizes confusion if you can use it
like a function call, writing a semicolon afterward, as in `SKIP_SPACES
(p, lim);'

   This can cause trouble before `else' statements, because the
semicolon is actually a null statement.  Suppose you write

     if (*p != 0)
       SKIP_SPACES (p, lim);
     else ...

The presence of two statements--the compound statement and a null
statement--in between the `if' condition and the `else' makes invalid C
code.

   The definition of the macro `SKIP_SPACES' can be altered to solve
this problem, using a `do ... while' statement.  Here is how:

     #define SKIP_SPACES(p, limit)     \
     do { char *lim = (limit);         \
          while (p < lim) {            \
            if (*p++ != ' ') {         \
              p--; break; }}}          \
     while (0)

   Now `SKIP_SPACES (p, lim);' expands into

     do {...} while (0);

which is one statement.  The loop executes exactly once; most compilers
generate no extra code for it.


File: cpp.info,  Node: Duplication of Side Effects,  Next: Self-Referential Macros,  Prev: Swallowing the Semicolon,  Up: Macro Pitfalls

Duplication of Side Effects
---------------------------

   Many C programs define a macro `min', for "minimum", like this:

     #define min(X, Y)  ((X) < (Y) ? (X) : (Y))

   When you use this macro with an argument containing a side effect,
as shown here,

     next = min (x + y, foo (z));

it expands as follows:

     next = ((x + y) < (foo (z)) ? (x + y) : (foo (z)));

where `x + y' has been substituted for `X' and `foo (z)' for `Y'.

   The function `foo' is used only once in the statement as it appears
in the program, but the expression `foo (z)' has been substituted twice
into the macro expansion.  As a result, `foo' might be called two times
when the statement is executed.  If it has side effects or if it takes
a long time to compute, the results might not be what you intended.  We
say that `min' is an "unsafe" macro.

   The best solution to this problem is to define `min' in a way that
computes the value of `foo (z)' only once.  The C language offers no
standard way to do this, but it can be done with GNU extensions as
follows:

     #define min(X, Y)                \
     ({ typeof (X) x_ = (X);          \
        typeof (Y) y_ = (Y);          \
        (x_ < y_) ? x_ : y_; })

   The `({ ... })' notation produces a compound statement that acts as
an expression.  Its value is the value of its last statement.  This
permits us to define local variables and assign each argument to one.
The local variables have underscores after their names to reduce the
risk of conflict with an identifier of wider scope (it is impossible to
avoid this entirely).  Now each argument is evaluated exactly once.

   If you do not wish to use GNU C extensions, the only solution is to
be careful when _using_ the macro `min'.  For example, you can
calculate the value of `foo (z)', save it in a variable, and use that
variable in `min':

     #define min(X, Y)  ((X) < (Y) ? (X) : (Y))
     ...
     {
       int tem = foo (z);
       next = min (x + y, tem);
     }

(where we assume that `foo' returns type `int').


File: cpp.info,  Node: Self-Referential Macros,  Next: Argument Prescan,  Prev: Duplication of Side Effects,  Up: Macro Pitfalls

Self-Referential Macros
-----------------------

   A "self-referential" macro is one whose name appears in its
definition.  Recall that all macro definitions are rescanned for more
macros to replace.  If the self-reference were considered a use of the
macro, it would produce an infinitely large expansion.  To prevent this,
the self-reference is not considered a macro call.  It is passed into
the preprocessor output unchanged.  Let's consider an example:

     #define foo (4 + foo)

where `foo' is also a variable in your program.

   Following the ordinary rules, each reference to `foo' will expand
into `(4 + foo)'; then this will be rescanned and will expand into `(4
+ (4 + foo))'; and so on until the computer runs out of memory.

   The self-reference rule cuts this process short after one step, at
`(4 + foo)'.  Therefore, this macro definition has the possibly useful
effect of causing the program to add 4 to the value of `foo' wherever
`foo' is referred to.

   In most cases, it is a bad idea to take advantage of this feature.  A
person reading the program who sees that `foo' is a variable will not
expect that it is a macro as well.  The reader will come across the
identifier `foo' in the program and think its value should be that of
the variable `foo', whereas in fact the value is four greater.

   One common, useful use of self-reference is to create a macro which
expands to itself.  If you write

     #define EPERM EPERM

then the macro `EPERM' expands to `EPERM'.  Effectively, it is left
alone by the preprocessor whenever it's used in running text.  You can
tell that it's a macro with `#ifdef'.  You might do this if you want to
define numeric constants with an `enum', but have `#ifdef' be true for
each constant.

   If a macro `x' expands to use a macro `y', and the expansion of `y'
refers to the macro `x', that is an "indirect self-reference" of `x'.
`x' is not expanded in this case either.  Thus, if we have

     #define x (4 + y)
     #define y (2 * x)

then `x' and `y' expand as follows:

     x    ==> (4 + y)
          ==> (4 + (2 * x))
     
     y    ==> (2 * x)
          ==> (2 * (4 + y))

Each macro is expanded when it appears in the definition of the other
macro, but not when it indirectly appears in its own definition.


File: cpp.info,  Node: Argument Prescan,  Next: Newlines in Arguments,  Prev: Self-Referential Macros,  Up: Macro Pitfalls

Argument Prescan
----------------

   Macro arguments are completely macro-expanded before they are
substituted into a macro body, unless they are stringified or pasted
with other tokens.  After substitution, the entire macro body, including
the substituted arguments, is scanned again for macros to be expanded.
The result is that the arguments are scanned _twice_ to expand macro
calls in them.

   Most of the time, this has no effect.  If the argument contained any
macro calls, they are expanded during the first scan.  The result
therefore contains no macro calls, so the second scan does not change
it.  If the argument were substituted as given, with no prescan, the
single remaining scan would find the same macro calls and produce the
same results.

   You might expect the double scan to change the results when a
self-referential macro is used in an argument of another macro (*note
Self-Referential Macros::): the self-referential macro would be
expanded once in the first scan, and a second time in the second scan.
However, this is not what happens.  The self-references that do not
expand in the first scan are marked so that they will not expand in the
second scan either.

   You might wonder, "Why mention the prescan, if it makes no
difference?  And why not skip it and make the preprocessor faster?"
The answer is that the prescan does make a difference in three special
cases:

   * Nested calls to a macro.

     We say that "nested" calls to a macro occur when a macro's argument
     contains a call to that very macro.  For example, if `f' is a macro
     that expects one argument, `f (f (1))' is a nested pair of calls to
     `f'.  The desired expansion is made by expanding `f (1)' and
     substituting that into the definition of `f'.  The prescan causes
     the expected result to happen.  Without the prescan, `f (1)' itself
     would be substituted as an argument, and the inner use of `f' would
     appear during the main scan as an indirect self-reference and
     would not be expanded.

   * Macros that call other macros that stringify or concatenate.

     If an argument is stringified or concatenated, the prescan does not
     occur.  If you _want_ to expand a macro, then stringify or
     concatenate its expansion, you can do that by causing one macro to
     call another macro that does the stringification or concatenation.
     For instance, if you have

          #define AFTERX(x) X_ ## x
          #define XAFTERX(x) AFTERX(x)
          #define TABLESIZE 1024
          #define BUFSIZE TABLESIZE

     then `AFTERX(BUFSIZE)' expands to `X_BUFSIZE', and
     `XAFTERX(BUFSIZE)' expands to `X_1024'.  (Not to `X_TABLESIZE'.
     Prescan always does a complete expansion.)

   * Macros used in arguments, whose expansions contain unshielded
     commas.

     This can cause a macro expanded on the second scan to be called
     with the wrong number of arguments.  Here is an example:

          #define foo  a,b
          #define bar(x) lose(x)
          #define lose(x) (1 + (x))

     We would like `bar(foo)' to turn into `(1 + (foo))', which would
     then turn into `(1 + (a,b))'.  Instead, `bar(foo)' expands into
     `lose(a,b)', and you get an error because `lose' requires a single
     argument.  In this case, the problem is easily solved by the same
     parentheses that ought to be used to prevent misnesting of
     arithmetic operations:

          #define foo (a,b)
     or
          #define bar(x) lose((x))

     The extra pair of parentheses prevents the comma in `foo''s
     definition from being interpreted as an argument separator.



File: cpp.info,  Node: Newlines in Arguments,  Prev: Argument Prescan,  Up: Macro Pitfalls

Newlines in Arguments
---------------------

   The invocation of a function-like macro can extend over many logical
lines.  However, in the present implementation, the entire expansion
comes out on one line.  Thus line numbers emitted by the compiler or
debugger refer to the line the invocation started on, which might be
different to the line containing the argument causing the problem.

   Here is an example illustrating this:

     #define ignore_second_arg(a,b,c) a; c
     
     ignore_second_arg (foo (),
                        ignored (),
                        syntax error);

The syntax error triggered by the tokens `syntax error' results in an
error message citing line three--the line of ignore_second_arg-- even
though the problematic code comes from line five.

   We consider this a bug, and intend to fix it in the near future.


File: cpp.info,  Node: Conditionals,  Next: Diagnostics,  Prev: Macros,  Up: Top

Conditionals
************

   A "conditional" is a directive that instructs the preprocessor to
select whether or not to include a chunk of code in the final token
stream passed to the compiler.  Preprocessor conditionals can test
arithmetic expressions, or whether a name is defined as a macro, or both
simultaneously using the special `defined' operator.

   A conditional in the C preprocessor resembles in some ways an `if'
statement in C, but it is important to understand the difference between
them.  The condition in an `if' statement is tested during the
execution of your program.  Its purpose is to allow your program to
behave differently from run to run, depending on the data it is
operating on.  The condition in a preprocessing conditional directive is
tested when your program is compiled.  Its purpose is to allow different
code to be included in the program depending on the situation at the
time of compilation.

   However, the distinction is becoming less clear.  Modern compilers
often do test `if' statements when a program is compiled, if their
conditions are known not to vary at run time, and eliminate code which
can never be executed.  If you can count on your compiler to do this,
you may find that your program is more readable if you use `if'
statements with constant conditions (perhaps determined by macros).  Of
course, you can only use this to exclude code, not type definitions or
other preprocessing directives, and you can only do it if the code
remains syntactically valid when it is not to be used.

   GCC version 3 eliminates this kind of never-executed code even when
not optimizing.  Older versions did it only when optimizing.

* Menu:

* Conditional Uses::
* Conditional Syntax::
* Deleted Code::


File: cpp.info,  Node: Conditional Uses,  Next: Conditional Syntax,  Up: Conditionals

Conditional Uses
================

   There are three general reasons to use a conditional.

   * A program may need to use different code depending on the machine
     or operating system it is to run on.  In some cases the code for
     one operating system may be erroneous on another operating system;
     for example, it might refer to data types or constants that do not
     exist on the other system.  When this happens, it is not enough to
     avoid executing the invalid code.  Its mere presence will cause
     the compiler to reject the program.  With a preprocessing
     conditional, the offending code can be effectively excised from
     the program when it is not valid.

   * You may want to be able to compile the same source file into two
     different programs.  One version might make frequent time-consuming
     consistency checks on its intermediate data, or print the values of
     those data for debugging, and the other not.

   * A conditional whose condition is always false is one way to
     exclude code from the program but keep it as a sort of comment for
     future reference.

   Simple programs that do not need system-specific logic or complex
debugging hooks generally will not need to use preprocessing
conditionals.

